John Dewey and Experiential Learning
Dewey (1903) states that it is vitally important to allow children to take an active part in their own personal development, thoughts and decisions, and strategies for solving problems in life. Until this time our minds are not really freed (Dewey, 1903). Dewey considered the importance of philosophies and our thoughts but was always clear that we must ‘do’ and act in order to grow through experiential thought and practice by testing hypothesise (Miettinen, 2000). This is further supported by philosophy, sociology, education and humanism that advocate for pupils’ agency and voice in their own learning (Costas and Barber, 2019).
Education ‘in’, ‘through’ and ‘about’ Movement
Arnold’s theory is focused on education ‘in’, ‘through’ and ‘about’ movement as opposed to sport (Arnold, 1996), which is then related to the subject of PE in the literature (Arnold, 1991). Additionally, Cartesian dualism is heavily criticised in Arnold's work who argues that knowledge is more than mere thought and highlights that the mind and body are not separate entities (Arnold, 1988). For this reason, I have chosen not to focus on the affective, cognitive and physical domains that are common in outdoor, adventure and PE literature. Arnold’s concepts address both intrinsic and extrinsic learning and motivation to present a three-dimensional model. Nevertheless, I am particularly interested with the education ‘in’ movement, which is predominantly to do with ‘knowing how’ to engage in activity and the direct involvement that can help the individual to realise an appreciation for the experience (Arnold, 1979 and Brown, 2013). This has previously been studied and applied to outdoor and adventurous activities in PE and I am intrigued to build on this study (Costas and Barber, 2019). Furthermore, the premise of this ideology can work together with Dewey, movement cultures/subcultures, broader curriculum planning and pedagogy that focuses on ‘place’.
Movement Culture / Subculture / Communities of Practice
Movement and/or physical culture is about utilising the broadest activity interests that the students may have, whether that may be dancing, skateboarding, hiking or climbing trees (Ward, 2014). This, therefore, works against the traditional competitive sporting activities that are teacher-led within school PE curriculums (Capel, 2007). As a result, the broadening of activities gives greater consideration for outdoor and adventurous education that may form part of the PE curriculum if not considered as a subject or area of education in its own right. Movement subcultures are proposed to be intrinsically meaningful activities where clubs, societies and/or committees are formed, which are regularly organised by pupils and they may involve staff, family and community members (Kretchmar, 2000). In the long-term, these clubs/committees/societies can lead to communities of practice (Murphy and O’Leary, 2012; Brundrett and Duncan, 2015 and Duncombe et al, 2018), whereby support is given across school and the local community in continuing outdoor and adventurous education/outdoor learning that has a deeper meaning and intrinsic value for those involved.
Transformative Teaching and Learning
Quennerstedt (2019) stated that currently educative processes start with the what(s) of education, followed by the how(s) and finally why(s). I have agreed with Quennerstedt (2019) in a more appropriate order of consideration – the why(s), how(s) and what(s) of education. The answer to ‘why’ is through knowing and volunteering within the school, because of this I know that opportunities for O&AE are currently limited. In Year 6, the pupils currently attend a three-day residential at an outdoor centre, and beyond that, there are no regular and embedded forms of outdoor learning in key stage 2. The answer to ‘how’ can be found in the O&AE folder and the longer-term pedagogy is justified below. The ‘what’ is currently unanswered as that would require the voices of the children and staff before and on the O&AE day. Nonetheless, some activities have been planned for particular reasons. The initial activity of building a camp on arrival is about observing the pupils working collaboratively and setting the tone for the rest of the day and hopefully beyond. This would give the supporting adults and I a chance to discuss the importance of facilitating (not directly leading) and allowing the children to learn through direct experience and potential failures that can or may occur. Secondly, I have planned a flour trail that the children and adults will follow so that they see the woodland area in full and the high-visibility markers that set the boundaries for the day (for safety). After these two planned activities, there is time planned to question and reflect on what has been done so far and plan the activities that they wish to participate in during the day. The main aim of the day is to explore the woodland setting, as this may be the first time in this setting for many of the children and this would initiate the first signpost of a pedagogy of place (see below).
A Pedagogy of Place
There are many terms that are similar or refer to a pedagogy of place, such as, ‘landfulness’, ‘place pedagogy’, ‘sense of place’ and ‘place-based education’ (a critique). Wattchow and Brown (2011, p. 182) propose that a pedagogy of place has four signposts, which are:
1. Being present in and with a place
2. The power of place-based stories and narratives
3. Apprenticing ourselves to outdoor places
4. The representation of place experiences.
For the initial O&AE day, I intend on introducing the first and second signposts. The first will be through child-initiated activities, discussion and questioning so that the pupils consider their surroundings and acknowledge how this is different and unique in comparison to other locations in the community and beyond. Furthermore, throughout the day each child and adult shall begin to develop their own place-based stories that are current, and we may find that some adults have older stories within the woodland setting that were created many years ago that begin to build up narratives (of place).
Each of these theories, concepts and practices can complement one another in achieving the overall vision.
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